Between World War I and World War II, European culture underwent a remarkable transformation as a result of both the continuation of philosophical traditions that had begun in the previous century and the massive loss of life that the war caused. On the one hand, writers and thinkers like Sigmund Freud saw during the interwar period the opportunity to push humankind forward based on the previous foundations of rationalism. On the other hand, literary writers like and José Ortega y Gasset, T.S. Eliot, and George Orwell saw decadence with little hope in sight, although it is worth noting that some of these writers offered small indications of a better future.
Sigmund Freud's theory of psychoanalysis built on the findings of previous scientists and philosophers, including Charles Darwin and William James. Darwin posited evolution on the basis of natural (i.e., sexual) selection, and James introduced the notion of identity arising from a stream of consciousness; Freud sought to explain how the drive to reproduce sexually impacted the consciousness. While this approach might seem individualized, it reflects societal concerns because societies are collectives of individuals; therefore, the extent to which the individual can improve his/her psychological functioning is directly proportional to how well society functions. Freud demonstrates this line of thinking in "The Structure of the Unconscious," in which he describes his division of the mind into the id, ego, and superego. He writes, "In popular language, we may say that the ego stands for reason and circumspection, while the id stands for the untamed passions"[1]; in championing the ego over the id, Freud indicates that humankind in general can eliminate neurosis and become more rational, enunciating a positive vision for the future.
However, Freud's selection is the only one for the week with a positive, or even neutral, outlook. In comparison, the José Ortega y Gasset's Revolt of the Masses is quite negative. In the selection, the author discusses fascism as a movement of mass mobilization, and he draws conclusions based on this nature about the lack of independent, strong intelligence among the mass followers of leaders such as Mussolini. "The characteristic of the hour," he writes, "is that the commonplace mind, knowing itself to be commonplace, has the assurance to proclaim the rights of the commonplace and to impose them wherever it will."[2] This characteristic, Ortega y Gasset writes, results in barbarism and the abandonment of reason. The average person acts without thinking; "Hence, his ideas are in effect nothing more than appetites in words."[3] In so far as Freud had identified the id with the appetites and appealed to humankind to override the id to overcome neurosis and embrace reason, Ortega y Gasset sees Europeans in the interwar period doing the opposite. Offering no solution, at least in the selection, the tone is decidedly negative.
Whereas Ortega y Gasset addresses political disintegration, George Orwell's emphasis in Down and Out in Paris in London is primarily on social decay, although political decay is present as well. On the latter point, the sheer volume of Russian emigrés whom Orwell encounters in Paris is a direct result of the Bolshevik Revolution and Russian Civil War, from which they are refugees; e.g., Orwell's friend Boris seems emblematic of the refugees, although there is dead wood as well: "Boris told me of an exiled Russian duke whom he had once met, who frequented expensive restaurants. The duke would find out if there was a Russian officer among the waiters, and, after he had dined, call him in a friendly way to his table [to arrange for a free meal."[4] In London, Orwell encounters the true economic consequences of the post-war recession, finding himself in flophouses and unable to find gainful employment. Nevertheless, the memoir ends on a note of hope, with Orwell recognizes that he has found his own sense of empathy: "I shall never again think that all tramps are drunken scoundrels, nor expect a beggar to be grateful when I give him a penny, nor be surprised if men out of work lack energy, nor subscribe to the Salvation Army, nor pawn my clothes, nor refuse a handbill, nor enjoy a meal at a smart restaurant. That is a beginning."[5]
Finally, T.S. Eliot's "The Waste Land" examines spiritual decay. In its fragmented form, the poem repeatedly evokes the war, e.g., in lines concerning the wife of a demobilized soldier who has had an abortion in his absence ("I can't help it, she said, pulling a long face, / It's them pills I took, to bring it off, she said."[6]. These lines evoke the destroyed morality of the post-war "unreal city" of London. In addition, the repeated references to the blind prophet of Greek myth, Tiresias, makes oblique mention of Freud (Tiresias is a character in Sophocles's Oedipus the Tyrant), while those to the Tarot and the Arthurian cycle of mythology evoke an unending but futile cycle of life and death. However, even in this bleak landscape, Eliot is able to find a glimmer of hope. At the end of the poem, in the shadow of London Bridge falling, the final line -- "Shantih shantih shantih," which Eliot renders in his note as "The Peace which passeth understanding,"[7] indicates the possibility of finding peace by escaping the unending cycle of life and death. While perhaps not "hopeful" in the sense that Orwell's ending is, it nevertheless offers more hope than Ortega y Gasset's observations, while simultaneously concluding that interwar society is in ruins.
In conclusion, Freud offers a utopian vision of the future in which, through psychoanalysis, humankind can transcend their inherent neuroses and, as more functional individuals, form more functional societies. Ortega y Gasset sees in fascism not that ideology's own utopian promises, but rather the dystopian effects of mob mentality. Orwell sees a dystopian post-war Europe in political and economic upheaval, but he is able to wrest some sense of a greater understanding of the human condition as a result. Eliot collapses under the sheer weight of this postwar European dystopia, offering instead a possible way out through renunciation of the cycle of life and death.
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[1] Sigmund Freud, "The Structure of the Unconscious," accessed June 26, 2016,http://anupamm.tripod.com/freudst.html, para. 9.
[2] José Ortega y Gasset, Revolt of the Masses (excerpt), The History Guide, accessed June 26, 2016,https://web.archive.org/web/20121019190503/http:/historyguide.org/europe/gasset.html, para. 4, emphasis in original.
[3] Ibid, para. 9.
[4] George Orwell, Down and Out in Paris and London, The Complete Works of George Orwell, accessed June 26, 2016, http://www.george-orwell.org/Down_and_Out_in_Paris_and_London/index.html, Chapter VIII, para. 1.
[5] Ibid, Chapter XXXVIII, para. 4.
[6] T.S. Eliot, "The Waste Land," accessed June 26, 2016, http://eliotswasteland.tripod.com/, lines 160-61.
[7] Ibid, line 433.
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